There are many traits and characteristics of psychopaths. While psychopaths are individuals, they share many aspects of their personalities. The Hare Psychopath Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) outlines 20 characteristics of a psychopath categorized into four validated factors.

Interpersonal Traits of a Psychopath

Perhaps the most well-known interpersonal trait of a psychopath is their pathological lying. Psychopaths lie constantly to cover up their psychopathic traits and antisocial (often illegal) behaviors.

Other interpersonal characteristics of a psychopath include:

• Glibness and superficial charm
• Grandiose sense of self-worth
• Being conning and manipulative

Affective or Emotional Characteristics of a Psychopath

Of course, the emotions of a psychopath also have specific traits. One such emotional characteristic is the lack of remorse or guilt. This psychopath emotional characteristic explains why psychopathic killers can commit heinous acts such as murder and not feel bad about them.

Other affective psychopathic characteristics include:

• Shallow emotions (emotions may be felt but in shallow and fleeting ways)
• Callousness and lack of empathy
• Failure to accept responsibility for own acts

Lifestyle Psychopathic Traits

Not only can psychopathic traits be seen in the emotions and interpersonal aspects but they can also be seen in the lifestyles of psychopaths as well. One such lifestyle trait is a parasitic lifestyle where the psychopath uses and feeds off of others. He or she likely does this by utilizing the interpersonal traits noted above.

Other lifestyle psychopathic traits include:

 A need for stimulation

• A lack of realistic, long-term goals
• Impulsivity
• Irresponsibility

Antisocial Traits of Psychopaths

Antisocial traits of psychopaths are traits that go against society's conventions. For example, juvenile delinquency and early behavioral problems are antisocial traits that many psychopaths have. These severe problems leave parents wondering, "Is my child a psychopath?"

Other antisocial traits of a psychopath include:

• Poor behavior controls
• Revocation of conditional release (i.e. a revoking of parole)
• Criminal versatility (i.e. where a psychopath is active in multiple types of crime)

Other Psychopathic Characteristics

Not all 20 checklist items on the PCL-R fit neatly into these factors. Additional psychopathic characteristics include:

• Promiscuous sexual behavior
• Many marital relationships

When Looking at Psychopathic Traits and Characteristics

When looking at a person and assessing psychopathic traits and characteristics, the PCL-R scores each item as a 0, 1 or 2 for how well each checklist item fits the person. That means that if these psychopathic traits only fit an individual somewhat, they likely aren't a psychopath even though they may share traits with one. The highest possible score on the checklist is a 40 and psychopaths score 30 or above. An average non-psychopathic criminal scores a 22 while a non-psychopathic, non-criminal scores about a 2. Essentially this indicates that many people do have several psychopathic characteristics but that doesn't make them a psychopath – only a preponderance of severe psychopathic traits does.

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Rape survivors share many common struggles and challenges even though the circumstance and nature of each victim's rape vary. These women, and occasionally men, experience a myriad of psychological and emotional issues long after any physical injuries have healed. While it's great for rape survivors to lean on close friends and family members, people who have never experienced sexual assault cannot fully relate to what it's like to survive rape. (See: Rape Victim Stories: Real Stories of Being Raped)

Healing Support for Rape Survivors

One of the best ways for rape survivors to heal from their traumatic experiences involves sharing details and feelings about the assault with other victims. While victims should always seek individual therapy from a mental health professional, many find that talking to other rape survivors in a safe, group setting very cathartic.

But many remain so imprisoned by fear, guilt, anger, and a loss of social wellbeing, that they have difficulty finding the courage to take the first step. (See: Effects of Rape: Psychological and Physical Effects of Rape) This is especially true for those who did not receive adequate post-sexual assault counseling for one reason or another.

Perhaps well-meaning family members have told the victim never to speak about it, claiming it will help her forget it ever happened. This dangerous advice can result in devastating mental health consequences for those who survive rape. (See: How to Support a Rape Victim – For Men and Women)

Rape Survivors: A Badge of Courage or a Living Hell?

It's not unusual for some rape survivors to start blogs or 'members only' online forums where victims can talk about their rape stories and current consequences of their experiences. If you're a victim of sexual assault, talking and sharing with other survivors can represent the first step toward healing. By taking this first step, your experience can become a badge of courage instead of a living Hell.

Your story can act as a tool that helps other victims – rape survivors who feel alone, frightened, angry, and depressed – see that they can heal and reclaim their lives from the specter of sexual assault.

Talk to a therapist or counselor about publicly sharing your rape story. He or she can provide you with guidelines about safety; pros and cons of starting a blog or online forum; and even direct you to support groups in your area where rape survivors gather to talk about the challenges they've faced since the assault.

Browse these helpful resources and blogs that rape survivors have set up for sharing about sexual assault:

Dancing in the Darkness – a collection of over 650 stories from rape survivors.

Pandora's Project – Support and resources for survivors of rape and sexual abuse.

The Story of a Rape Victim – A woman's story of rape and recovery.

Take Back the Night – A safe place for victims of sexual violence to take a stand and break the silence.

RAINN – The nation's largest anti-sexual violence organization.

It doesn't matter if those who survive rape choose to simply share their stories and challenges in an already established site, such as one of these, or start their own blog and forum. Speaking out about a rape experience can empower victims by slowly breaking down the psychological hold it has on their lives. Rape survivors can transform their traumatic experiences into tools for helping others break the silence and gain freedom. (See: Rape Recovery: How Do I Get Over Being Raped?)

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Have you ever wondered what the signs of a psychopath are? Have you ever been concerned that you are a psychopath or that you're with a psychopath? These psychopath signs and symptoms can help illuminate if you have a psychopath in your life or if you, yourself, might be a psychopath. (Does A Psychopath Test Exist? Diagnosing the Psychopath)

Signs You're With A Psychopath or You Are One

A checklist known as the Psychopathy Checklist has been developed by Canadian psychologist, Robert D. Hare, and it is widely used to identify psychopaths in studies. The following signs and symptoms of a psychopath are based upon that checklist. The following questions are asked as if evaluating your partner but you can also use them to evaluate yourself.

1. Does your partner shrug off important subjects with glibness? Does your partner exhibit superficial charm?
2. Is your partner self-centered with an inflated sense of self?
3. Does your partner need stimulation constantly or from more extreme experiences?
4. Does your partner lie to your or others?
5. Does your partner con or manipulate you or others?
6. Does your partner show a lack of guilt and/or remorse when he/she hurts someone?
7. Does your partner appear to have only shallow feelings or feel things superficially?
8. Does your partner have trouble empathizing with the pain of others? Is your partner callous towards others?
9. Is your partner in relationships where he/she uses others (i.e. parasitic relationships)?
10. Does your partner have poor control over his or her behavior?
11. Does your partner display promiscuous sexual behavior?
12. Did your partner have behavioral problems early in childhood? (psychopathic behavior in children)
13. Does your partner have a hard time making realistic, long-term goals?
14. Is your partner impulsive?
15. Is your partner irresponsible?
16. Does your partner refuse to accept responsibly?
17. Has your partner had many marital or significant relationships?
18. Was your partner a juvenile delinquent? (do child psychopaths exist)
19. Has your partner been on parole and had that parole revoked?
20. Is your partner a criminal in many areas (a versatile criminal)?

Scoring the Above Psychopathic Signs and Symptoms

When looking at the above signs and symptoms of a psychopath, you may wish to give each question a rating of 0, 1 or 2 corresponding to:

• 0 – No, my partner doesn't do that at all.
• 1 – Yes, my partner does that sometimes.
• 2. – Yes, my partner does that all the time.

When you tally up your score, then, you get a total out of 40. If the score is 30 or above, the chances are good that you are dating a psychopath (or, in the case that you did it for yourself, you are a psychopath). If you're wondering if you're in a relationship with a psychopath, here's how to identify psychopathic behavior.

Remember though, when the actual, scientific checklist is used, professionals are specifically trained on how to assess each item and how to assign a value so your assessment will not be as accurate as theirs. If psychopathy is suspected, a professional who specializes in psychopathy should always be consulted for a proper diagnosis.

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Being separated from a partner can put enormous stress on a relationship. Here are problems associated with maintaining long-distance relationships and some solutions.

Table of Contents

• Communication Issues
• Relationship Issues
• Emotional Issues

This is an online guide directed toward couples who plan on or already are separated due to a work or study experience abroad. Although a majority of resources exist for the traveler to cope with the experience, there are few referring to the significant other that is left behind. For couples to get through an "abroad experience", attention must be paid to three key areas (communication, the relationship itself, and emotions), then the time apart becomes bearable.

Communication

Similar to most long-distance relationships, a key component is communication, which is also a universal requirement for any successful relationship. Recent technology makes keeping in touch easier, despite the distance apart between partners, but there are still pros and cons to every method of communication. Some of the most successful methods include writing letters, using long-distance calling cards, using e-mail and Instant Messaging, and sending care packages.

Couples separated by work or study abroad experiences rely on communication methods because like all relationships, communication is key. The most often used methods are calling, e-mail, and Instant Messaging. The reasons for these being most often used involve two important factors for any person: time and money. Although it is not time-consuming to send an e-mail or do Instant Messaging, one key to success in any relationship is variety and spontaneity, especially when separated by an ocean. Also, not all of these methods may be available to both partners, depending on where each person finds themselves.

Communication Methods (Pros)

Writing Letters	Calling	E-mail	Instant Messaging	Care Packages
-Inexpensive -Relaxing -Personal	-Fast -Relaxing -Personal	-Inexpensive -Fast -Accessible	-Inexpensive -Relaxing -Personal -Accessible	-Inexpensive -Personal -Creative

Communication Methods (Cons)

Writing Letters	Calling	E-mail	Instant Messaging	Care Packages
-Difficulty mailing -Requires patience -Frequency	-Expensive -Searches for calling cards -Brief conversations -Time zone differences	-Time zone differences -Internet difficulties	-Time zone differences -Internet difficulties	-Difficulty mailing -Frequency

Writing Letters

Due to the growing population using the Internet for communication needs, the idea of writing letters is easily lost, but not forgotten. Letter writing and sending mail is considered inexpensive whether by first class or priority mail standards, but it only depends on how quickly one partner wishes to send the letters. Also, since each letter sent is handwritten, there is something more personal about it possibly because it shows how much one partner cares through the time and effort it takes to write letters. However, frequency of writing and how a person sends the letters (in groups) may result in only having the local post office as a place to mail it.

Calling

Another popular method of communicating for couples is the telephone. Making a telephone call is still fast, no matter what the distance involved is, but again there is also a personal element in it because partners hear each other's voices. Not surprisingly, there are numerous ways of attempting to maximize the telephone for long-distance calling ranging from internet phone lines to calling cards. Usually these methods greatly restrict the amount of time partners talk with each other due to time zone differences.

E-mail

With the invention of the Internet, e-mail has become a popular method for communicating, similar to writing letters. E-mail is also accessible anywhere as long as both partners can get to a computer.

Instant Messaging

Further advancement of e-mail and Internet capabilities led to the birth of the Instant Messaging service. The fastest and arguably best method for being with a significant other abroad, it is inexpensive and accessible almost anywhere, as long as both partners are at a terminal. Allows voice and video conversations when both people have microphones or webcams.

Care Packages

This is a more creative method of sending mail to a significant other working or studying abroad. When used properly, this technique may assist the traveler with re-entry shock, commonly experienced by people who go abroad. The reason is because it not only includes written letters, but also tokens from things partners usually do together; serving as a portal into the world the traveler temporarily left. The more creativity each couple has, the more effective this method becomes.

Relationship

Another key consideration are issues involving the relationship itself.The difficulty with this is it requires both partners to evaluate the status of their relationship. The importance of understanding such viewpoints is because it makes facing the tougher challenges proposed by the time abroad easier to deal with.Some specific areas to consider discussing with your partner are: possibility of growing apart, dependency, lack of physical interaction, and lack of support from partner.

Prior to attempting the maintenance of a relationship complicated by a work or study abroad experience, there are preliminary elements that must be present and healthy. Those elements are trust, honesty, and communication. With those in place, couples should consider issues that being abroad raises such as: possibility of growth together or apart, dependence versus independence, lack of physical interaction, and lack of support from partner.

Possibility of Growth Together or Apart

An issue needing to be addressed prior to the abroad experience is the possibility of growing together or apart. It is important for the partner left behind to understand how the experience may influence the traveler by broadening his or her mindset outside of our own culture. It is also possible for partners to become so different that continuing the relationship seems pointless. However, through the use of good communication skills and understanding, this outcome is avoidable if both partners commit the time and energy upon departure and return.

Dependence Versus Independence

How dependent partners are on each other in a relationship may become stressed while living through an abroad experience. Dr. Kenneth J. Davidson, sociology professor and co-author of the textbook, Marriage and Familyat the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire describes three types of dependency in marriages (chapter 10): A-frame, H-frame, and M-frame. Although these types are discussed in the context of marriage, they are also an excellent model for relationships.

Frames of Marriage (Types)

• A-frame marriage - A marital relationship in which one partner is too dependent upon the other.
• H-frame marriage - A relationship of total independence in which very little couple identity develops.
• M-frame marriage - A relationship which balances dependence and independence to form an interdependent marriage.

The M-frame marriage is the ideal style partners are encouraged to strive for, and considering couples in relationships separated by an ocean, this same style applies. It is important for couples to remember they have separate lives and that it is acceptable for them to have experiences outside of the relationship, but it is equally important to understand one another as still available for support whenever possible. This does not mean the other styles are doomed to fail surviving a work or study abroad experience, rather, it means partners must take additional time and effort in adapting to the experience. Good communication and coping skills are important toward this cause.

Lack of Physical Interaction

The term "physical interaction" in the context of relationships refers to not only sexual acts, but also affectionate acts such as conversation, praise, facial expressions, and body language. This obstacle is inevitable and allows couples to work on their interpersonal relationship outside of physical acts.

An alternative method of interaction is Instant Messaging. In addition to being able to engage in conversation textually, this method also allows the use of emoticons (computer symbols resembling emotions). Using these, it becomes possible to share common feelings like: smiles, laughs, kisses, frowns, and a host of others using picture representations. Users can also establish audio and video connections through instant messaging services.

When using any method of expressing emotion, remember that something must be left to the imagination, proving technology has still not evolved beyond humans.

Lack of Support from Partner

This is another stumbling block for partners who decide on attempting a long-distance relationship. However, the problems are magnified by the work or study abroad experience because of the ocean separating the partners.

Because of the inability to both share and provide support during good times and bad, it is important for the couple to find (or maintain) other avenues of support, most commonly done through friendships with people who care. Through these friendships, partners find the support they may be lacking due to the absence of their significant other.

Emotional

The last type of issue couples should prepare themselves for in a work or study abroad separation is emotions. Although life for the partner left behind might not progress or change as rapidly as the traveler's, there are common emotions he or she needs to work through, including loneliness, depression, anxiety, and jealousy.

Being separated in a relationship is difficult physically due to the lack of being close to one another, but it is also mentally difficult due to the possible emotions experienced by the partner left behind. Some of the most common are: loneliness, depression, anxiety, and jealousy.

Loneliness

Combating the feeling of loneliness may seem like a lone battle, and it is. No matter how close a network of friends is, those people are not always around, which forces partners to find alternative methods of dealing with that emotion. Looking forward to being reunited and becoming involved with clubs and social organizations also helps to overcome this emotion.

An effective alternative is becoming involved (or re-involved) with hobbies. During the course of a relationship, it is possible for partners to find less time to devote to hobbies (determined by the amount of dependency), but the interest in them never extinguishes. It also helps partners pass the time until they are reunited rather than concentrate on their loneliness.

Depression

One of the most common emotions experienced by both partners is depression. From the traveler's perspective, overcoming this emotion is less difficult because he or she becomes immersed in the host culture, but for the person left behind there are additional supports.

Having a network of close friends is helpful because it provides the companionship a relationship lacks during a work or study abroad experience. It also provides the necessary support for partners to express their feelings in a healthy way, knowing they can do so freely without worry of being judged by people or society.

Anxiety

Unlike loneliness and depression, anxiety is not an emotion that can be dealt with successfully alone. Both partners need to be open and honest with each other about issues this emotion raises which includes exclusivity.

Discussing and making mutual agreements, or setting boundaries about exclusivity is a way of alleviating the effects of anxiety (fear and paranoia). Boundaries include how far interest in a guy or girl is allowed to go, acceptable behavior with opposite sex friends, and whether or not to see other people. However, the boundaries created must be upheld and respected, which happens when partners build a strong foundation of trust.

Although discussion and creation of mutual agreements alleviate initial fears and worries, it is important for partners to revisit these problems associated with anxiety together, in order to provide reassurances and support when needed.

Jealousy

The result of partners who fail to deal with anxiety properly is jealousy, which leaves one or both partners to misunderstand different situations they may find themselves in, but this is an issue partners can work through if both people are willing to put forth the time and energy.

During the time apart, it is only natural for both partners to make new friends, possibly of the opposite sex. Acceptance of that initial fact is a step toward overcoming the negative emotional destruction jealousy causes.

Something that helps free a partner from the negative and damaging effects of jealousy is reassurances from the other that their misunderstanding is simply that. Doing so reinforces trust in the partner's mind and slowly forces him or her to evaluate the situation in a more rational sense. Once that happens, the partner overcomes anxiety, and the feeling of jealousy leaves him or her.

The definition of a psychopath and causes of psychopathy are sometimes argued about in scientific circles, but understanding the symptoms and signs of a psychopath is possible. Psychopathy causes may include genetics and early life factors and the signs and symptoms of a psychopath are typically noticeable before a psychopath's 16th birthday as these symptoms are thought to be fairly stable across the lifetime. Learn more about psychopathy below.

Definition of Psychopathy

The definition of psychopathy can be challenging as depending on the researcher, psychopathy is defined slightly differently and often many psychopathic traits are taken into account. That said, a simple definition of psychopathy is provided by the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy. Psychopathy is:

"A constellation of traits that comprises affective features, interpersonal features, as well as impulsive and antisocial behaviors. The affective features include lack of guilt, empathy, and deep emotional attachments to others; the interpersonal features include narcissism and superficial charm; and the impulsive and antisocial behaviors include dishonesty, manipulativeness, and reckless risk-taking. Although psychopathy is a risk factor for physical aggression, it is by no means synonymous with it. In contrast to individuals with psychotic disorders, most psychopaths are in touch with reality and seemingly rational. Psychopathic individuals are found at elevated rates in prisons and jails, but can be found in community settings as well."

Causes of Psychopathy

No one knows exactly what causes psychopathy but it is likely a combination of genetics, environmental and interpersonal factors. For example, children of psychopaths are more likely to be psychopaths themselves, suggesting genetic influence.

Additionally, some early life experiences have been shown to increase the risks of becoming a psychopath. Poor parenting, parenting that focuses on punishment (rather than rewards) and inconsistent parenting appear to help cause psychopathy. Additional risk factors for psychopathy include:

• Substance abuse by the parents
• Separation from a parent or lack of parental involvement
• Child physical abuse or neglect

Signs and Symptoms of Psychopathy

The signs and symptoms of psychopathy are identified most commonly in scientific studies by Hare's 20-item Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. This checklist identifies the following as the symptoms and signs of psychopathy:

1. Superficial charm and glibness
2. Inflated sense of self-worth
3. Constant need for stimulation
4. Lying pathologically
5. Conning others; being manipulative
6. Lack of remorse or guilt
7. Shallow emotions
8. Callousness; lack of empathy
9. Using others (a parasitic lifestyle)
10. Poor control over behavior
11. Promiscuous sexual behavior
12. Behavioral problems early in life
13. Lack of realistic, long-term goals
14. Being impulsive
15. Being irresponsible
16. Blaming others and refusing to accept responsibility
17. Having several marital relationships
18. Delinquency when young
19. Revocation of conditional release
20. Criminal acts in several realms (criminal versatility)

Is Psychopathy a Mental Illness?

Psychopathy is also sometimes known as psychopathic personality disorder and is considered a mental illness. As with mental illness in general, there is no known cure for psychopathy and treatment of adult psychopaths has been shown ineffective. However, the treatment of children with psychopathic traits has shown some promise.

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You may wish to know how posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is diagnosed, particularly if you suspect you have PTSD; and while the thought of a PTSD diagnosis may be scary, the process of diagnosing PTSD shouldn’t be.

PTSD is a mental illness and is diagnosed based on the criteria found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, currently in its fifth edition. The diagnosis of PTSD is made based on an interview and possibly some physical tests to rule out other possible diagnoses. An official PTSD diagnosis is most commonly made by a psychiatrist.

PTSD Diagnostic Criteria

The diagnosis of PTSD is made when certain symptoms are present in an individual. These symptoms center around eight components:

1. The experiencing of a trauma (PTSD Causes: Causes of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder)
2. Reexperiencing the trauma in the present day (Understanding Nightmares and Flashbacks)
3. Avoidance of stimuli that remind the person of the trauma
4. Negative changes in thoughts and mood, particularly related to the trauma
5. Changes in arousal (energy level, type of energy) and reactivity
6. Duration of symptoms lasting longer than one month
7. Significant distress or impairment caused by the symptoms
8. Symptoms are not attributable to the effects of medication or another medical condition

For specifics on the diagnostic criteria used to diagnose PTSD, please see, Is PTSD a Mental Illness? PTSD in the DSM-5.

Physical Examination for PTSD Diagnosis

While no physical tests are required for a PTSD diagnosis, some may be done to rule out other illnesses. Additionally, some trauma survivors may have physical signs of the trauma at the time of examination, such as an injury.

It is also notable that some people with PTSD may appear disheveled or have poor hygiene due to the illness.

Mental Status Examination During a PTSD Diagnosis

A formal mental assessment typically takes place when PTSD is diagnosed. This examination is to detect specifics that may be present in a person with PTSD including:

• Agitation
• An extreme response if startled
• Episodes of not knowing the place or time
• Memory abnormalities, forgetfulness
• Poor concentration
• Poor impulse control
• Altered speech flow or rate
• Feelings of depression, anxiety, guilt or fear
• Changes in thoughts and perceptions such as through the presence of delusions or hallucinations

Some of these are directly related to the symptoms of PTSD, while others are characteristics that may be indicative of PTSD or another disorder.

Likelihood of suicide or homicide also tends to be assessed as both of these states can occur in those with PTSD.

The PTSD Diagnostic Interview

The bulk of the way PTSD is diagnosed is through an interview. Diagnosticians (such as a psychiatrist) will ask the person about his or her history and his or her experiences. This is simply a question-and-answer session designed to elicit the information the doctor needs to make a diagnosis.

The goal of the interview is either to satisfy the criteria needed to make a PTSD diagnosis or to assess what other issues may be present.

A PTSD diagnosis can be tricky, however, as people often present themselves to healthcare professionals complaining of physical symptoms, such as various forms of pain, rather than psychological ones. Drug addiction or suicide attempts also can drive people with PTSD to seek help, and, again, in these cases, the underlying PTSD may be obscured (Living With PTSD Can Be A Nightmare).

A PTSD Diagnosis May Be Good News

The good news about a diagnosis of PTSD is that once an accurate assessment has been made PTSD treatment, such as therapy and medications can begin and this is very positive because, with treatment, people can, and do, recover from PTSD every day (Does A PTSD Cure Exist?).

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Women raping women does, on occasion, occur; although, the vast majority of rape involves man on woman assault. Law enforcement and others usually refer to women raping women as "lesbian rape" even though one or both parties involved might not consider their sexual orientation as lesbian. Women raped by other females report perpetrators forcing digit (finger) masturbation, digital penetration, and stimulation of clitoris and vulva using the tongue or inserting foreign devices, such as vibrators or phallic-like objects, into the vagina or anus.

Women Raped by Other Females

Women raped by a female perpetrator often exist in silence. Experts don't have a clear idea of the frequency of women raping women due to lack of empirical data. People don't talk as much about same-gender rapes (and especially women raping women), due to the concentrated focus on the much more prevalent type: man on woman sexual assault.

Much like man on woman sexual assault, same-sex rape can occur between intimate partners, acquaintances, or on a date. Also similar to male-female rape, same-sex perpetrators of date or acquaintance rape frequently use drugs to incapacitate victims and have sex with them.

Women Raping Women – How Is It Different?

Aside from the obvious same-sex aspect, the crime of women raping women includes a few key differences from the typical man on woman sexual assault. The most obvious is that society doesn't widely recognize same-gender sexual assault, especially incidences of women being raped by female sexual partners. One unique difference is that the sexual assault may result from bias and amount to a hate crime committed against someone perceived as gay or lesbian. Even so, survivors of woman on woman rape face most of the same difficulties of other rape victims. Some differences and additional issues include:

• Cultural belief that a woman cannot rape another woman in the true sense of the word
• Fear that they'll face gay or lesbian based ridicule from law enforcement or other authorities when reporting rape by a same-sex partner while on a date
• Women raped by their lesbian partner or acquaintance may remain silent, fearing rejection by family members or employers if they have kept their sexual orientation private
• Some women fear that loved ones and straight friends will blame the sexual assault on their gay lifestyle (see: Getting Raped: The Stigma of Being A Rape Victim)

Regardless of the genders involved or the setting in which the rape occurred, it is still rape – a violent, brutal crime centered on the perpetrator's need for power and control. Rape is never the fault of the victim, regardless of sexual orientation or circumstances.

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Learning about rape prevention represents something women can do to proactively protect themselves against a potential assault. Keep in mind that even when you take all the precautions necessary to protect yourself and stay safe, you still may not prevent rape. Victims never bear any of the responsibility for sexual assault; the perpetrator bears all responsibility and criminal guilt.

Rape Prevention Tips and Advice

Women can learn about rape prevention and use this knowledge to help them stay safe in many situations where sexual assault could occur. You can help prevent rape by taking these steps:

• Listen to your intuition when alone – Although you can never fully protect yourself from potential sexual assault, it's important that you avoid dangerous situations. Stay aware of your surroundings, avoid isolated public areas, walk with determination even if you're lost, trust your gut, keep your cell phone charged and with you, avoid going somewhere alone with a person you don't know well, don't use music headphones when walking alone.
• Reduce risk in social situations – Go to parties and social events with a group of friends and stay with the group. Do not leave your drink unattended. This leaves a potential rapist an opportunity to slip a date rape drug in it. Take it with you to go to the ladies room or anywhere else, even for a short time. If you do leave it, just get a new drink. Do not accept drinks from a stranger or someone you just met.
• Don't reveal too much on social media – Some social media platforms, such as Foursquare and others, use GPS locating service to tell friends where to find you. But think about it, would-be sexual predators can use these tools to find you as well. Turn off the location feature of these mobile apps on your cell phone before going out.

What to Do When Being Raped

Despite your best efforts to prevent rape, you still need to know what to do when being raped. You could find yourself in a situation where you feel pressured into sexual activities that you don't want by a friend or acquaintance. Alternatively, a stranger could break into your home or grab you on the street. You need to know what to do to try to get out of these situations -- just in case:

• State clearly and unequivocally that you do not want to engage in sex of any kind with the person. Remember you do not have any obligation to participate in any activity that makes you feel uncomfortable.
• Arrange a special code word with a close friend or family member that you can say if talking on the phone to them to indicate that you are in a dangerous situation and need help.
• Make up an excuse as to why you need to leave or that you are having your period, or even that you have a sexually transmitted disease.
• Look for an escape route or way to get out of the room.
• Call attention to yourself by screaming or making a scene and yell for help.
• If someone actually attacks you, scratch him with your fingernails and pull his hair, bite, and kick - do anything to make him let go even for a second and then run. When you get away, go directly to the police. Do not wash your hands or do anything to destroy or contaminate any physical evidence you may have on your body (i.e. perpetrator's skin under your nails).
• As a last resort, try to humanize yourself in the eyes of your attacker. Try to make the attacker see you as a person rather than objectify you. Talk about your family, your kids, your mother. Tell him he is better than the way he is behaving.
• If your attacker is armed with a gun or knife, the above tactics may not work effectively. Any act of aggression may cause him to become more violent and angry. However, a last resort, violent attack may represent your only hope of escaping rape. If you choose to physically attack an armed aggressor, your action must be unexpected, sudden, and intensely painful. Target his most vulnerable spots, such as testicles, eye sockets, instep, or windpipe with a lethal intention.

Perhaps the two most important rape prevention tips you can remember are: trust your intuition and gut feelings and remain fully aware of your surroundings when alone and in social settings with friends, at all times.

(See: Reporting Rape: What to Do If You Are Raped?)

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According to Patricia D. Rozee, author of "Fear of Rape" from the Women's Studies Encyclopedia, women fear rape more than any other violent offense, such as physical non-sexual assault, armed robbery, and even murder. Fear of rape or rape phobia often causes women to avoid activities that they enjoy, such as going out in the evening for a play or a coffee or visiting with friends and loved ones. Based on their desire to avoid putting themselves at risk for sexual assault, women develop their own self-imposed restrictions to avoid the danger of rape.

Developing a Fear of Rape – An Early Lesson

According to Rozee, studies indicate that this intense fear of rape, common among a significant majority of girls and women, develops in the early years, between about age 2 and 12. She reports that women, participating in the studies claim to remember hearing parental warnings about stranger danger at very young ages. The early parental instructions about stranger avoidance contained no explicit reference to sexual assault. But as the girls grew in age and maturity, parents added increasingly explicit warnings that they probably deemed as age-appropriate for their individual child.

Women Say Fear of Rape Always There

Women have a fear of rape most often when at home alone or walking along a street, especially at dusk or after dark. In the book, The Female Fear: The Social Cost of Rape, authors and researchers Margaret T. Gordon and Stephanie Riger say that fully one-third of the women in their study reported worrying about rape once a month or more. These women said that the fear of rape is just something that lives in the back of their minds at all times, even when it's not present in conscious thought. Another third of the participants claimed to never worry about rape; yet, they took precautions to guard against sexual assault.

Situational Factors that Trigger Fear of Rape

Situational circumstances can bring a shelved fear of rape to the forefront of the conscious mind. These rape phobia triggers arise from parental teaching and experiences of implied and explicit sexual harassment and intrusions. Some factors that trigger a conscious fear of rape in women include:

• Men who honk, whistle, or leer at them as they walk on public streets
• Poor lighting in parking areas or along streets and in the workplace
• Sexual harassment by an acquaintance or co-worker
• Sexually overt commentary by males about their body and appearance
• Obscene phone calls
• Several men with only one or two women in a group of strangers or near strangers
• Witnessing a man exposing himself or masturbating
• Men known to them or strangers that fondle and grope their body parts
• Stigma of rape exacerbates fear of rape because women fear societal scorn and blame if they are is raped.

While men can be raped by other men, they rarely live with a fear of sexual assault lurking in the backs of their minds. Perhaps in a prison or other confinement situation, the fear may arise, but most men simply cannot truly relate to women's fear of being raped.

Men can, however, take measures to help alleviate some rape phobia in women. Men need to develop awareness about women's fear of rape and consider this when approaching them in an isolated or dark area. Even if he has innocent intentions, the woman has no way of knowing that. If men can empathize with this uniquely female fear with even minimal understanding, they will only approach a woman in one of these trigger situations if absolutely necessary, such as to ask directions or ask her to call for help if someone is injured.

Women's Fear of Rape Focused on the Wrong Type of Rape

Although acquaintance rape represents the most common type of sexual assault perpetrated against women, they fear stranger rape significantly more. According to the anti-sexual violence organization, RAINN, strangers do commit 27 percent of reported sexual assaults. That's too high a statistic to ignore for most women. However, placing too much focus on stranger rape is problematic in that women tend to discount the possibility of acquaintance and date rape. They put too much trust in male "friends" they actually know very little about. They enlarge the perimeter of their personal boundaries to expose vulnerabilities usually reserved for people they know well.

Everyone, women and men alike, should take common sense precautions to stay safe in potentially dangerous situations and to remain aware of surroundings. Women need to get prepared, stay alert and refuse to allow fear of rape to keep them from fully participating in the activities they enjoy and society in general.

(See: Rape Prevention: How to Prevent Rape)

article references

Examination of the difficulty in treating people with personality disorders and the different types of therapy for treatment of personality disorders.

In September 1987, the Harvard Mental Health Letter was devoted to a discussion of personality disorders. It began as follows:

"The study of personality is in some ways the most fascinating aspect of psychology, because it concerns what is most human about us. But it is a subject highly resistant to systematic description and explanation. The definition of personality, the classification of personality traits or types, even the distinction between healthy and disordered personalities has been elusive. How personality is formed remains a mystery. There is little agreement about the best ways to treat personality disorders or even about when treatment is possible."

At one time psychiatrists thought that personality disorders did not respond very well to treatment. This opinion was derived from the notion that human personality is fixed for life once it has been molded in childhood, and from the belief among people with personality disorders that their own views and behaviors are correct, and that others are the ones at fault. More recently, however, doctors have recognized that humans can continue to grow and change throughout life. Most patients with personality disorders are now considered to be treatable, although the degree of improvement may vary. The type of treatment recommended depends on the personality characteristics associated with the specific disorder.

The Difficulty in Treating People with Personality Disorders

People with personality disorders tend not to seek treatment on their own until a severe enough problem develops that they are "forced" to get help. The problem can stem from work or a relationship or they may be diagnosed with another psychiatric problem, such as a mood disorder or substance abuse disorder. One thing researchers do know, personality disorders are often difficult to treat and may require long-term attention to change the inappropriate behavior and thought patterns.

Psychotherapy

And that's where psychotherapy for treatment of personality disorders comes in. In order to treat Personality Disorders, the individuals must want to change the pattern of personality. These individuals must want to gain better insight into themselves and their behaviors in order to change how they think about themselves and their relationships. Medications and therapy can help if the individuals decide to be in control of their lives and healing.

Four proven techniques for treatment are:

• Behavior Therapy/Behavior Modification
• Cognitive Therapy
• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
• Dialectical-Behavior Therapy (DBT)

Behavior Therapy/Behavior Modification

This treatment focuses on changing unwanted behavior through rewards and reinforcements. This treatment also relies on involvement from informal supports, such as family and close friends, to reinforce the desired behavior.

Cognitive Therapy

This treatment assists individuals in identifying distorted thinking patterns that lead to negative feelings and possibly troublesome and self-defeating behaviors. This treatment will assist individuals in incorporating more positive and empowering thinking.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

This treatment is a combination of cognitive and behavioral therapies and helps individuals identify and change their negative thought patterns and beliefs in order to modify their self-harming behaviors.

It is important for individuals with Personality Disorders to have strong support systems, either through family, close friends, therapy or self-help groups. Support groups can help educate not only the individuals but also their family and friends regarding the nature of the disorder and teach them skills to cope with stressors in a healthier way.

Dialectical-Behavior Therapy (DBT)

DBT is a specific form of cognitive behavioral therapy that blends traditional CBT with aspects of Eastern philosophies. The treatment was originally designed for individuals with borderline personality disorder, as well as others with suicidal and self-injurious behaviors. It has since been applied to a variety of disorders including depression and substance abuse. One of the main components of DBT is the teaching of important life skills including mindfulness, emotion regulation, interpersonal effectiveness and distress tolerance. Overall, DBT helps people who tend to think and act in extremes, approach their lives in a more balanced way.

more: Sam Vaknin, author of Narcissism Revisited, has additional information on Treating Personality Disorders with Therapy.

Sources:

• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Revised 4th ed.). Washington, DC.
• Nicole van Beek, PhD, Roel Verheul, PhD. Motivation for Treatment in Patients With Personality Disorders, Journal of Personality Disorders, Vol. 22, Issue 1, Feb. 2008
• American Psychiatric Association pamphlet on Personality Disorders
• Merck Manual Home Edition For Patients and Caregivers, Personality Disorders, 2006.