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As the greatest interpreter of Buddhism to Westerners put it, not just meditation but Buddhism in its entirety "is a method...for the correction of our perceptions and for the transformation of consciousness" rather than a theology.13 The purpose and effects of Buddhism and Hinduism, in which meditation is the key spiritual element, are more like Western psychotherapy than like Western religion. And indeed, meditation can remove sadness and depression, at least temporarily.14
By "meditation" I mean to include all the sorts of meditation described by Buddhist and Hindu writers as well as by such popularizers as the Maharishi of Transcendental Meditation. More specifically, I include both the sort of meditation in which one shuts out all outside stimuli, and the sort of meditation in which one lets all stimuli in. For more details about the nature of meditation, see such writers as Humphreys (1970), Wood (1949), Suzuki (1907-1963), or a delightful narrative account by Gibson (1974-1975). In the 1970's there also was a rash of discussion of meditation by psychologists, e.g., Naranjo and Ornstein, 1971 and Benson (1975).
Getting rid of suffering by one's own mental efforts in meditation is an idea found in the Western tradition, also. The psychologist James quotes with approval this statement by the artist Carlyle:
Once more, then, our self-feeling is in our power. As Carlyle says: "Make thy claim of wages a zero, then hast thou the world under thy feet. Well did the wisest of our time write, it is only with renunciation that life, properly speaking, can be said to begin."(15)
Western religious mystics in the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim traditions also have practiced meditation; among the most famous are Meister Eckhart, the Cabbalists, and Sufis, respectively.
It is of fundamental importance to understand that the nature of meditation is not mysterious scientifically, though one's thoughts in meditation may (or may not) be mystical and full of awe at the mysteries of life and the universe. Rather it is a process of concentration and controlled imagination.
The Technique of Meditation
Scientific writings on meditation have performed a considerable service in removing the mumbo-jumbo and metaphysical clap-trap from it.(16) Benson and Klipper have invented the felicitous and non-mysterious label, "Relaxation response" for the processes that occur in meditation, and they have boiled down the necessary conditions and instructions for meditation as follows:
How To Bring Forth the Relaxation Response
(1) A QUIET ENVIRONMENT
Ideally, you should choose a quiet, calm environment with as few distractions as possible. A quiet room is suitable, as is a place of worship. The quiet environment contributes to the effectiveness of the repeated word or phrase by making it easier to eliminate distracting thoughts.
(2) A MENTAL DEVICE
To shift the mind from logical, externally oriented thoughts, there should be a constant stimulus: a sound, word, or phrase repeated silently or aloud; or fixed gazing at an object. Since one of the major difficulties in the elicitation of the Relaxation Response is "mind wandering," the repetition of the word or phrase is a way to help break the train of distracting thoughts. Your eyes are usually closed if you are using a repeated sound or word; of course, your eyes are open if you are gazing. Attention to the normal rhythm of breathing is also useful and enhances the repetition of the sound or the word.
(3) A PASSIVE ATTITUDE
When distracting thoughts occur, they are to be disregarded and attention redirected to the repetition or gazing; you should not worry about how well you are performing the technique, because this may well prevent the Relaxation Response from occurring. Adopt a "let it happen" attitude. The passive attitude is perhaps the most important element in eliciting the Relaxation Response. Distracting thoughts will occur. Do not worry about them. When these thoughts do present themselves and you become aware of them, simply return to the repetition of the mental device. These other thoughts do not mean you are performing the technique incorrectly. They are to be expected.
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