What Causes Suicide? ...Concluded

by Valerie Jupe

  Almost all sociologists will agree destruction of a dyad, or two-person group, is often a cause for suicide. Dyads are characteristically fragile, though strongly emotional and personal in nature. Edwin Schneidman, in an essay concerning suicide, described the intense frustration felt when people invest so much of themselves in others, who are also human and thusly flawed, only to be disappointed by destruction of the dyad (15). Many times a person is so devastated there seems to be no point in living. Aggression is thought to be internalized when people commit suicide, even if it is a result of external forces, such as failed interrelations with others or lack of them all together. Sociologists blame the low number of close, meaningful relationships on the growing depersonalization of society. Krauss states “cultures which provide [close, meaningful, and relatively conflict-free interactions among their members] have …low rates of suicide” (18). Therefore, from the sociological viewpoint, most relationships fail because society poses threats which destroy these relationships.

  Benjamin Wolman, a sociologist who theorized on the “anticulture” of suicide, blamed estrangement and contemporary societal mechanization and alienation for growing suicide rates (90). Wolman sums up the sociological standpoint in his statement:

The estrangement inherent in our way of life; the decline of family ties; the depersonalization in human relations; and the loss of the individual in a mass society are probably the main, or at least the important, reasons why so many people now tend to hurt one another and to hurt themselves. (93)

  The ability of people to internalize such aggression and turn it into self-criticism and self-hate is one of the most prominent ties between sociology and psychology. While most psychologists do not hold that society is so exceedingly influential in human development and personal motives, the connection is obviously there. The internalization of society, as it relates to the developing, unique individual, is also an interesting view of reality which Douglas states exceptionally well. He explains society exists within the minds of the individuals who exist within society, and when individuals interact the idea of society becomes an ever-changing “whole” product of this interaction:

It exists only in the minds of individuals, but, being more than the mind of any individual or even the minds of all individuals taken together, it exists almost entirely outside the individual and acts upon him as an external force would – even though this force can only exist internally. (49)

  This helps relate sociology and psychology, and also gives insight into the cause of suicide which is often termed “tunnel vision”.Because people internalize all thoughts, emotions, interpretations of society, etc., and because these forces, external and internal, strongly act upon them, they feel there is no way to escape in a conscious, or even semi-conscious, state. The problem is perpetual.

  David Malan, a psychologist, suggests that suicide is the cause of accumulated trauma (181). Though it sounds extremely simplistic, most psychologists, to a certain degree, concur with this theory. As Dublin explains, many psychiatrists feel suicide is a result of mental and emotional disturbances that are already present and which external circumstances worsen (13). He details how psychological frameworks are thought to exist and develop as people age, determining how they will react to life’s ups and downs (Dublin 13). Rather than outside forces, personality, character, temperament (which is often thought to be inherited, and thus biochemical), and emotional stability are all psychological factors. This shows suicide as being a personal reaction, with external forces merely contributing to the final outcome. Some views stress personality far more than others, however, and the psychological school that seems to have developed the dominant position on suicide is the psychodynamic approach.

  The theory of the psychodynamic school holds that only a portion of the mind is conscious and the rest lies hidden deep within the subconscious, ruled by conflicting forces of a super-strong libido (id) and super-controlling morality (superego) all translated through the ego, which attempts to balance the two through rationality. Dublin explains that all the motivating power individuals have originates beyond their awareness within the subconscious (154). The ideology is that humans have an inborn instinct to live, but can get extremely emotional when the right external factor touches on a sensitive, perhaps dormant, internal factor and the push for self-annihilation and an end to pain is born. Whether a person commits suicide or not is entirely dependent upon the strength of the ego. Sometimes the ego-superego conflict alone can be detrimental, causing unbearable inner turmoil and despair.

  Edwin Shneidman, in an essay evaluating the psychodynamic view, explains most suicides are marked by ambivalence toward life and death, as well as feelings of hopelessness and helplessness (9). He explains a type of suicide, termed “egotic suicide,” results from a conflict of internal aspects of self to which the only response is the ending of the personality (Shneidman 13). Such internal aspects are not always as solitarily self-related as egotic conflict, however.

  Krauss, in a discussion on psychosocial causes of suicide, explained Freud’s view that suicide is often the result of an unachieved goal or dysfunctional relationship, which is similar to the sociological standpoint (32). Krauss explains, however, in killing oneself one is really killing the internal representation of the unattainable object (32). The primary dispute between sociology and psychology, then, is whether the external or the internal has more power. Considering the superego is supposedly the internalization of external morals and parental values, all is relative. Internal and external factors are all relevant and the subjectivity is based, again, in terms of “reality”.

  The question of reality and factors leading to depression and suicide is also frequently addressed by medical science. Sociology and psychology do not discount the effects of biology, heredity, and genetics when determining theories, so neither should any view of suicide causation. Genetics is believed to cause many cases of depression, as it often runs in a family, but inability to pinpoint the area in genetic code relating to depression discounts that theory for the time being. Evidence has been found which relates chemical changes in the brain to depression, however.

  Charles Nemeroff, a writer for Scientific America, states both decreased activity of a neurotransmitter, as well as overactivity of a hormonal system, can lead to severe depression and, concurrently, suicide (“Neurobiology”). Neurotransmitters travel between neurons, or nerve cells, in order to perform functions vital to life. Nemeroff states norepinephrine and serotonin, both monoamine type neurotransmitters, are natural anti-depressants (“Neurobiology”). In order to understand the way these monoamines affect human biological make-up, it is necessary to have a brief understanding of the way neurotransmitters work.

  Between two neurons lies a small gap called the synapse. Neurotransmitters cross the synapse, being “fired” from one neuron and attaching to the next. Sometimes the receiving neuron will send out a message instructing the sending neuron to slow its rate of firing neurotransmitters. The sending neuron then has to pull the neurotransmitters back into itself, a process known as “reuptake”. Nemeroff points out that, due to overactive reuptake, reduced levels of norepinephrine have been noted in the brain of many depressed patients (“Neurobiology”). Similarly, the study points out that in many patients who have committed suicide increased norepinephrine receptors were located in the brain’s cortex. Often receptors in the brain expand in number in order to compensate for low levels of transmitter molecules (“Neurobiology”).

  Due to these findings, reports Nemeroff, some drugs are now available that block norepinephrine reuptake and increase norepinephrine in the synapse, allowing it to act as an antidepressant (“Neurobiology”). Serotonin is also a natural antidepressant and relates to drugs such as Prozac, which blocks serotonin reuptake. Nemeroff details how cells which produce serotonin often extend into many areas of the brain thought to contribute to depression, such as the hypothalamus (“Neurobiology”). The drugs which prohibit serotonin reuptake are some of the most effective antidepressants ever made. Effexor is an especially effective drug because it blocks reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. Neurotransmitters are not the only biological elements which contribute to depression. Much research has been done that seems to show correlation between hormones and depression.

  The hypothalamus regulates the hormonal system in the human body. As Nemeroff observed, the system that manages the body’s stress response is often singled out for causing severe depression (“Neurobiology”). When there exists a physical or psychological threat to the body, the HPA-axis (hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal) increases production of cortisol and, in effect, initiates the “fight or flight” function of the body. Nemeroff reports numerous studies show over-activation of the HPA-system may lead to depression (“Neurobiology”). Because this system reacts to stress, however, it is unlikely that it will initiate itself without some type of anxiety-causing event. External sociological forces, coupled with increasingly negative psychological conflict, can cause the stress necessary to activate the HPA-system.

  Biochemical functions, though extremely powerful and relevant to human behavior, rarely act alone. Simply because one may have a hyperactive HPA-axis or low levels of serotonin or norepinephrine monoamines, it is not definite a person will suffer from extreme depression or attempt suicide. Obviously emotions, though they may exist in chemical form, result from the ways people internalize and perceive external events as well as the ways in which people view themselves. The fact of the matter is people are strongly influenced by society, on conscious and subconscious levels. Society exists inside and outside of people, intermixing with the mind and with the psyche. The entire idea of consciousness is so complex and enigmatic, it is severely limiting to relate any aspect of it to only one particular school of science.

  Something as severe, basic, and fundamentally human as suicide probably results from a number of things. Because psychological, sociological, and biochemical factors make up people and their subjective, individual realities, all these factors should be considered when theorizing on the causes of suicide. Humans exist as themselves, inside themselves, as conscious “minds” and are inherently individualistic. Humans also exist in groups, ever learning and changing due to exterior events and other people. They also are made up, biologically, of neurotransmitters and complex hormonal systems which affect moods and responses. All these factors entwine inside people to create the intricacy of human life. While it is possible one of these things is more powerful than another in each individual, it is highly unlikely that solely one is responsible for a decision as deterministic as suicide. The causes of suicide are as complex and varied as humanity itself. As long as suicide is considered a taboo subject, the deeply integrated causes may never be fully realized.

If you wish to contact Valerie regarding her paper, you may e-mail her here.

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