faq

REGARDING LEARNING DISABILITIES
(INFORMATION FOR PARENTS)

Research and Theory

Specific learning disabilities (LD) can arise for a number of different reasons. For example, not all cognitive abilities develop concurrently; some lag behind, such that a child is developing certain abilities more slowly than her peers. However, learning disabilities may also be due to perceptual-motor problems arising from physiological or neurological difficulties. Or the learning disability may stem from the child's cognitive style, which causes her to respond more impulsively in learning situations.

Thus, some disabilities are attributable to developmental lag, which occurs when a child of elementary-school age has not developed certain skills that are typical for her age. Another common problem that stems from a developmental lag is inability to pay attention. A sixth grader who is as distractible as a third grader would be said to have an attention-deficit disorder. Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a severe form of this problem and is characterized by developmentally inappropriate levels of impulsiveness, overactivity, and inattention. There is a high correlation between ADHD and learning disabilities. Finally, perceptual-motor disabilities (e.g., dyslexia), many of which appear to have some kind of organic cause, also affect learning. For instance, a child who has difficulty following oral instructions may have a defect in auditory processing; her brain may have difficulty translating instructions into a behavioral response, or her inattentiveness may cause her to forget the beginning of the instructions by the time she hears the last of them.

According to most estimates, between 5% and 15% of school-age children have learning disabilities. Males tend to outnumber females by 2:1 or even 5:1. Although LD problems have been linked to a variety of cognitive and neurobiological deficits and to family histories of learning disabilities, the exact causes of learning disabilities are largely unknown.

DIAGNOSTIC CONSIDERATIONS

One important issue in the assessment of learning disabilities is "who" is doing the assessing? My perspective is that of a clinical psychologist, rather than a school psychologist, educational diagnostician, etc. My diagnoses are based exclusively on the revised third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R), published by the American Psychiatric Association. Using this nomenclature, learning disabilities are currently referred to as Specific Developmental Disorders (e.g., Developmental Arithmetic Disorder), in order to distinguish them from more global developmental disorders such as Mental Retardation and Autism. However, within a few months the next version of the DSM will be published, DSM-IV. Specific Developmental Disorders will then be referred to as Learning Disorders.

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Disabled learners may be no less intelligent than their peers, but overall LD children have somewhat lower-than-average IQs than their non-LD counterparts. Their academic skills deficits are focal. Learning disorders are characterized by inadequate development of specific academic skills that are not due to Mental Retardation or deficient educational opportunities. If a sensory deficit (e.g., hearing impairment) is present, the learning difficulties are in excess of those usually associated with it. The diagnosis is made only if the learning disorder significantly interferes with academic achievement or with activities of daily living that require those particular skills.

Federal guidelines stipulate that the learning difficulties should not be primarily due to visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, orthopedic problems, or emotional disability. Furthermore, there should be the assurance that learning difficulties are not primarily the result of 1) inadequate instruction or curriculum for the child's age and/or ability level; 2) lack of educational opportunity; 3) emotional stress at home or school; 4) a temporary crisis situation; 5) environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage; or 6) lack of motivation. It is generally recommended that the diagnostician review examples of classwork (e.g., a writing sample) that exhibit the learning disability. The areas of learning disability specified in the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) include: oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, mathematics calculation, and mathematics reasoning.

ASSESSMENT

This will vary from state to state, although every state is expected to adhere to federal standards. One method that some diagnosticians use is to examine differences between verbal and nonverbal intelligence on tests such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III). On the WISC-III, this would mean comparing the Verbal IQ with the Performance IQ. One problem with this approach is that Dr. Wechsler and his followers never intended the Verbal and Performance scales to be measuring separate and discriminable aspects of intelligence. They are both different manifestations of general intelligence. The distinction between verbal and nonverbal is therefore rather arbitrary and is not even theory-driven.

Another method of evaluating LD problems is to examine subtest "scatter" (i.e., differences in subtest scores) on tests like the WISC-III. This is wrong headed for several reasons. Among them:

1. IQ tests presumably measure cognitive ability, not academic prowess;
2. subtest scatter is common and "statistically significant" differences in scores may not have any practical relevance;
3. the DSM-III-R requires a more thorough evaluation of cognitive AND academic functioning; etc.

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