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REGARDING LEARNING DISABILITIES
(INFORMATION FOR PARENTS)
Research and Theory
Specific learning disabilities (LD) can arise for a number of different
reasons. For example, not all cognitive abilities develop concurrently; some
lag behind, such that a child is developing certain abilities more slowly than
her peers. However, learning disabilities may also be due to perceptual-motor
problems arising from physiological or neurological difficulties. Or the
learning disability may stem from the child's cognitive style, which causes
her to respond more impulsively in learning situations.
Thus, some disabilities are attributable to developmental lag, which occurs
when a child of elementary-school age has not developed certain skills that
are typical for her age. Another common problem that stems from a
developmental lag is inability to pay attention. A sixth grader who is as
distractible as a third grader would be said to have an attention-deficit
disorder. Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a severe form of
this problem and is characterized by developmentally inappropriate levels of
impulsiveness, overactivity, and inattention. There is a high correlation
between ADHD and learning disabilities. Finally, perceptual-motor disabilities
(e.g., dyslexia), many of which appear to have some kind of organic cause,
also affect learning. For instance, a child who has difficulty following oral
instructions may have a defect in auditory processing; her brain may have
difficulty translating instructions into a behavioral response, or her
inattentiveness may cause her to forget the beginning of the instructions by
the time she hears the last of them.
According to most estimates, between 5% and 15% of school-age children have
learning disabilities. Males tend to outnumber females by 2:1 or even 5:1.
Although LD problems have been linked to a variety of cognitive and
neurobiological deficits and to family histories of learning disabilities, the
exact causes of learning disabilities are largely unknown.
DIAGNOSTIC CONSIDERATIONS
One important issue in the assessment of learning disabilities is
"who" is doing the assessing? My perspective is that of a clinical
psychologist, rather than a school psychologist, educational diagnostician,
etc. My diagnoses are based exclusively on the revised third edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R), published
by the American Psychiatric Association. Using this nomenclature, learning
disabilities are currently referred to as Specific Developmental Disorders
(e.g., Developmental Arithmetic Disorder), in order to distinguish them from
more global developmental disorders such as Mental Retardation and Autism.
However, within a few months the next version of the DSM will be published,
DSM-IV. Specific Developmental Disorders will then be referred to as Learning
Disorders
Disabled learners may be no less intelligent than their peers, but overall
LD children have somewhat lower-than-average IQs than their non-LD
counterparts. Their academic skills deficits are focal. Learning disorders are
characterized by inadequate development of specific academic skills that are
not due to Mental Retardation or deficient educational opportunities. If a
sensory deficit (e.g., hearing impairment) is present, the learning
difficulties are in excess of those usually associated with it. The diagnosis
is made only if the learning disorder significantly interferes with academic
achievement or with activities of daily living that require those particular
skills.
Federal guidelines stipulate that the learning difficulties should not be
primarily due to visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, orthopedic problems,
or emotional disability. Furthermore, there should be the assurance that
learning difficulties are not primarily the result of 1) inadequate
instruction or curriculum for the child's age and/or ability level; 2) lack of
educational opportunity; 3) emotional stress at home or school; 4) a temporary
crisis situation; 5) environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage; or 6)
lack of motivation. It is generally recommended that the diagnostician review
examples of classwork (e.g., a writing sample) that exhibit the learning
disability. The areas of learning disability specified in the Education for
All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) include: oral expression,
listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading
comprehension, mathematics calculation, and mathematics reasoning.
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